As the Joint Force transitions toward a highly distributed, modular "mosaic" warfighting concept to prevail in near-peer conflicts, the integration of autonomous and semi-autonomous systems introduces unprecedented political, legal, and operational complexities. Because a mosaic fight relies on rapidly reconfiguring sensors, deciders, and shooters across a multinational coalition, how will this concept practically account for varying national Rules of Engagement (ROE) and operational dependencies in a contested environment?
To operationalize this framework, what legally defines the "nationality" of an autonomous system, and how does this legal status affect its operational employment and state responsibility under international law? Furthermore, as these emerging technologies are integrated into multinational air operations, how can the alliance establish and maintain sufficient trust in non-U.S. autonomous systems to support effective human-machine teaming? This research should analyze the friction between machine-speed, highly automated mosaic kill webs and the rigid, nationally constrained legal frameworks of coalition partners, ultimately proposing novel legal, policy, and technical architectures to coordinate multi-national ROE without degrading tactical agility.
- Okmark, LCDR Lars, "Navigating Autonomy: Challenges of Integrating Autonomous Vehicles in US Military and Commercial Maritime Sectors" AFGC thesis, 2025.
- Okmark answers questions regarding the nationality and operational employment of autonomous systems by highlighting that current international maritime law fails to provide a clear framework for establishing vessel nationality without a human crew. Because traditional treaties like UNCLOS dictate that ships must be "properly manned" and operate under the authority of a master, the deployment of fully autonomous ships creates "significant legal uncertainties regarding vessel nationality, liability, and flag state jurisdiction". This legal ambiguity severely impacts operational employment; an autonomous naval vessel entering contested waters without recognized nationality, clear legal status, or direct human oversight could inadvertently trigger diplomatic crises or have its actions misinterpreted as unlawful acts of aggression. To resolve this and prevent autonomous ships from being trapped in a "regulatory fog," Okmark argues for urgent multilateral agreements and updated UNCLOS interpretations to harmonize vessel classification, establish uniform flag-state recognition, and ensure MASS can navigate globally without facing conflicting jurisdictional enforcement.