As the Joint Force transitions toward multi-domain operations, establishing the proper structure and organizational architecture to command and control space forces is essential to provide the National Command Authority (NCA), USSPACECOM, and other Combatant Commands (COCOMs) with the space capabilities and effects they require to achieve their objectives. Within this joint framework, a critical challenge is determining how to fully integrate the U.S. Space Force into Joint All-Domain Operations (JADO).
Specifically, is the Air Operations Center the proper command and control structure for space superiority? Furthermore, is it possible to unify military and civilian C2 networks to gain operational resiliency and efficiency and ensure the Joint Force is ready to engage in a space conflict, and if so, how? This research should address how organizational designs must evolve to bridge the gap between service-retained capabilities and joint multi-domain execution.
- Beard, Maj. John E., "The Space Rings," ACSC AO 2025.
- Addressed by Beard's proposal to redefine space leadership as the entire Decision Architecture and Command Integration network. He explains that effective command and control in the space domain relies fundamentally on secure communications and the capability to dynamically task and re-task satellites across diverse constellations. Because space power is distributed across orbital, link, and terrestrial segments rather than physically centralized, a commander's ability to communicate is the most critical linkage to direct operations. Rather than trying to target physical commanders, an adversary can achieve systemic paralysis across the entire space force by disrupting these communication networks through cyber-attacks, electronic warfare, or electromagnetic interference. To maintain operational resilience, the U.S. Space Force must therefore design its C2 architecture to protect these critical networks and prevent single points of failure.
- Gunther, Maj. Brianne E., "Training Cannot Wait Ten Years--The Critical Experience Gap in USSF Officers Planning and Executing Space C2," AFGC thesis, 2024, 69 pgs.
- Is the Air Operations Center the proper command and control structure for space superiority? What is the proper structure and organizational architecture to command and control space forces to provide the NCA, USSPACECOM, and the other COCOMs the space capabilities and effects they desire to achieve their objectives and end states? Gunther explores this question by analyzing the operations of the Combined Space Operations Center (CSpOC), noting that it organizes and executes its C2 mission using processes adapted directly from the Air Operations Center (AOC) model, such as the Master Space Plan and Combined Space Tasking Order. However, she argues that this structure is currently hindered by persistent C2 "seams" between theater AOCs and space planners, a problem exacerbated by ongoing organizational uncertainty, lack of approved mission directives, and inadequate space doctrine that fails to detail operational C2 mechanisms. To ensure this organizational architecture can effectively command and control space forces, Gunther concludes that the USSF must formally track planning experts via Special Experience Identifiers (SEIs) and implement standardized tactician certification programs across its Space Deltas to effectively advise mission planning cells.
- Patterson, Maj. Travis, "Bridging the Gap: How an Airborne Mobile-Mesh Network Can Overcome Space Vulnerabilities in Tomorrow's Fight," ACSC paper, 2018.
- Thien, Lt. Col. John G., "Maximizing Space through Presentation of Forces," AWC Professional Studies Paper, 2019, 2019, 22 pgs.
- Voke, Maj. Matthew R., "Artificial Intelligence for Command and Control of Air Power," ACSC paper, 2018.
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- Bancroft, Col. Michael J., "US Army Space and Cyber Anti-Access/Area Denial Posturing: How US Army Space and Cyber Experts Posture and Plan Forces for the A2/AD Dilemma," AWC PSP, 2022, 31 pgs.
- Borja, Maj. Kevin S., "Optimizing Officer Development for USSF Operations: Specialization vs. Generalization," AFGC thesis, 2025
- Borja addresses Space Force integration into Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) by arguing that joint officers should not be shallow generalists, but rather "professional specialists" who deeply understand the physics of their domain before moving into strategic roles. To ensure these officers can effectively integrate into the Joint Force, he proposes a "Translator" tour between years 8 and 12, where Technical Track officers deploy as Space Liaison Officers to units like an Army Corps or Marine Expeditionary Force. During this phase, officers are evaluated on their ability to integrate space-based Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) and satellite communications into the tactical architecture of non-technical units, ensuring they can translate specific orbital capabilities into actionable strategic advantages for terrestrial combatant commanders.
- Gunther, Maj. Brianne E., "Training Cannot Wait Ten Years--The Critical Experience Gap in USSF Officers Planning and Executing Space C2," AFGC thesis, 2024, 69 pgs.
- Gunther answers this by identifying that the primary barrier to integrating the United States Space Force (USSF) into Joint All-Domain Operations (JADO) is a critical lack of joint planning and operational command and control (C2) expertise among its officers. She asserts that space professionals must be able to synchronize their exquisite capabilities with joint warfighting efforts, but legacy training models have historically failed to prepare them for this level of integration. To overcome this gap and seamlessly integrate the Space Force into the joint team, Gunther rejects proposed service-centric training solutions and instead recommends that the Space Training and Readiness Command (STARCOM) develop a specialized operational-level space C2 course explicitly grounded in joint doctrine and the joint planning process.
- Hackett, Maj. Shawn W. "The Theoretical Foundations of Spacepower: From Economic to Asymmetric Warfare," SAASS thesis, subsequently published as an AU Press Drew Paper (2024).
- Woodruff, LTC Robert, "Soldiers, Satellites and Space: How Strategic Competition is Reliant upon this Interdependency," AWC PSP, 2022, 28 pgs.