Women Parliamentarians’ Impact in Indo-Pacific Gender-Responsive and Climate-Compatible Security Policy Making

Published March 12, 2024
By Maryruth Belsey Priebe

Journal of Indo-Pacific Affairs --

Abstract

This study examines whether women's legislative representation enhances the likelihood of a country developing a gender-responsive climate strategy or a climate-compatible Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) National Action Plan (NAP). It investigates how women's substantive representation alters state policy outcomes by emphasizing gender in climate-security policies and focusing on climate change in WPS policies. Using empirical analysis of UN Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC), WPS NAPs, Interparliamentary Union (IPU) rank and percentage, and qualitative analysis of Indo-Pacific policies, findings indicate that higher IPU metrics correlate with WPS NAP adoption, NDC implementation, or both, and with increased cross-references in WPS NAPs and NDCs. However, comparison of IPU Rank to qualitative policy text analysis reveals no clear correlation to women parliamentarians' impact on policy making, suggesting that achieving gender-responsive climate strategies or climate-compatible WPS policies necessitates more than increased women's representation in legislatures. The study concludes by briefly exploring the importance of incorporating a gender perspective in policy making.

***

In the years 2021, 2022, and 2023, the stark realities of climate change, long warned of by many climate scientists, have come into sharp focus. Global warming has led to widespread destruction, accelerating more rapidly than anticipated due to humanity’s excessive use of fossil fuels. The impacts of climate change, arriving a decade earlier than projected, have proven more severe than previously anticipated.^[1] Describing The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) Sixth Assessment Report as a “code red for humanity,” the UN Secretary General underscored the urgency of the situation.^[2] Urgent state action is imperative to address these alarming trends and mitigate the most pressing security threats posed by climate change. However, political will to enact necessary policies remains lacking in most countries.

Could bolstering women’s representation in legislative bodies lead to improved outcomes in climate-security and gender policies?^[3] Specifically, would increased women’s representation in national governments enhance the probability of a country developing a gender-responsive climate change nationally determined contribution (NDC) or a climate-compatible Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) National Action Plan (NAP)? This study builds upon existing literature to propose that the presence of women in national legislatures influences a state’s policy priorities, resulting in greater emphasis on gender-responsiveness in climate-security policies and climate compatibility in WPS policies. Despite progress, women continue to be underrepresented in national legislatures worldwide. According to the Interparliamentary Union’s (IPU) 2020 data, women hold only 25 percent of all national parliamentary seats, with gender parity achieved in only four countries in their single or lower houses of parliament (Rwanda, Cuba, Bolivia, and the United Arab Emirates).^[4]

However, women and men often hold differing perceptions of climate change and exhibit varying levels of climate risk tolerance. Thus, incorporating women’s perspectives into policy-making processes may enhance the likelihood of crafting legislation that adequately addresses the urgency of the current climate crisis. Globally, women typically express higher levels of concern about climate change, display less skepticism toward climate science, and are more inclined to believe that climate change will personally harm them.^[5]

Research in international relations and feminist political economy indicates that increasing women’s substantive representation in national government can influence a state’s foreign policy priorities by placing greater emphasis on social and gender justice.^[6] Diane Elson and other feminist political economists argue that governance and policy-making processes may be influenced by masculine biases, resulting in an oversight of how institutions and policies favor men while disadvantaging women.^[7] Additionally, the theory of “more women, more substantive representation” suggests that an uptick in women’s representation is likely to lead to a greater consideration of women’s issues in policy making.^[8] For instance, Orlando C. Richard and Carliss D. Miller observe that women politicians are less inclined to support military spending over welfare programs that stabilize communities.^[9]

Numerous studies corroborate the notion that women legislators are more prone to introduce and co-sponsor policies addressing the needs of women, children, and families. These policies encompass improvements in education, healthcare, the economy, employment, women’s rights, and childcare.^[10]

Of specific relevance to this project, several studies indicate that augmenting women’s representation in parliament yields superior environmental policies. For instance, an analysis reveals that nations with higher proportions of women in parliament demonstrate greater propensity to ratify environmental treaties.^[11] Additionally, research by Astghik Mavisakalyan and Yashar Tarverdi establishes a positive correlation between heightened levels of women’s representation in parliament and the implementation of more stringent climate change policies.^[12] Furthermore, empirical findings from Ergas and York illustrate that as women’s political standing (reflected in parliamentary seats) increases, per capita carbon dioxide emissions decrease.^[13]

These instances suggest that, when considered individually, discrete policies pertaining to security, climate, and gender equality generally yield enhanced outcomes in the presence of higher percentages of women in parliament. However, no studies to date have investigated whether women’s parliamentary representation influences cross-cutting issues such as the triple nexus of gender-climate-security.

The following analysis aims to apply a theoretical framework formulated by Susan Franceschet and Jennifer M. Piscopo, which examines the potential impact of higher levels of women’s parliamentary representation on policy making. These scholars propose two dimensions for assessing women’s substantive representation: as a process, to determine if women policy makers are more inclined to act for women’s interests, and as an outcome, to assess whether the presence of women in parliament leads to tangible changes in policies.^[14] Given the escalating pace of climate change and its potential ramifications for international security, elucidating whether increased representation of women in national government can enhance policy outcomes holds significant importance. To commence, however, this analysis will provide background information on the significance of the gender-climate-security nexus.

Gender-Climate-Security: Why the Triple Nexus Matters

Conflict and Climate: Compounding Risks

There exists a prevailing consensus within the realms of security and international relations that climate change serves as a catalyst for threats. The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) initially acknowledged the interconnectedness of climate and security in 2007, subsequently issuing analyses on the anticipated amplification of global security risks due to climate change.^[15] Research indicates that the trajectory of global warming is poised to instigate heightened levels of conflict and violence worldwide, potentially destabilizing even ostensibly stable states when confronted with abrupt shocks or significant pressures.^[16] Both direct stressors, such as rising sea levels and scarcity of freshwater and ocean resources, and climate-induced extreme weather events, alongside indirect stressors like internal population displacements and migrations, disruptions in food supply, and fluctuations in prices, are forecasted to jeopardize human safety and security.^[17] Security scholars Chantal de Jonge Oudraat and Michael E. Brown expound upon the overarching trends indicative of escalating climate-security threats: “Rising sea levels threatening the existence of small island nations along with the world’s coastal cities and populations; intensifying naval and resource competitions in the Arctic; the impact of extreme weather and rising temperatures on the viability of human habitats; and the impact of climate-generated population movements on governmental viability, national security, and regional stability.”^[18]

These trends, particularly the role of climate change in exacerbating low-intensity conflicts, have been evident since as early as 2000.^[19] For instance, Scott Greenwood highlights a case where Syria plunged into civil unrest due to governmental failure in addressing resource scarcity and severe drought from 2006 to 2010, suggesting a potential link between these climate-related environmental changes and the outbreak of civil war, although dispute this connection.^[20] A recent study by Ide et al. indicates that a flood in June 2015 in Northeast India may have escalated tensions and sporadic skirmishes among various ethnic groups, including the Garo National Liberation Army (GNLA) in Meghalaya state and the National Democratic Front of Boroland (NDFB), involving migrants from different parts of India and Bangladesh, as well as straining relations between the Indian government and northeastern states.^[21]

Additionally, climate change is projected to impede military readiness, endangering bases and rendering equipment inoperable. The financial toll of climate-related disaster responses, coupled with damages to equipment, amounts to billions annually.^[22] For instance, the 2018 Hurricane Michael in Florida inflicted USD 4 billion in damage to Tyndall Air Force Base, underscoring the fiscal ramifications for the US Department of Defense.^[23] As one of the biggest carbon-emitting sectors in the world, the military's carbon footprint exacerbates climate-related security threats, further intertwining conflict and climate challenges.^[24]

Gender in Conflict and in Climate Change: Intersecting Vulnerabilities

While the concept of human security is relatively recent within traditional security frameworks, it is increasingly recognized as fundamental for examining the gendered origins of both national and international instabilities. The adverse impacts of conflict and violence on women’s human security are well-documented: women often face heightened risks of displacement and forced migration, encounter elevated rates of battle-related fatalities, and suffer from indirect health consequences such as increased disease transmission in conflict zones.^[25] Conflict tends to escalate rates of sexual- and gender-based violence (SGBV) and forced marriage among women, with rape frequently utilized as a weapon of war.^[26] Conversely, numerous studies demonstrate that enhancing women’s rights through investments in gender equality fosters greater social resources and networks, ultimately promoting more peaceful conflict resolution mechanisms.^[27] In essence, gender equity plays a pivotal role in understanding the foundations of state security and peacefulness. As Valerie M. Hudson and her colleagues have aptly remarked, the treatment of women mirrors the condition of a nation.^[28]

Moreover, gender considerations should be integrated into security assessments due to the increased involvement of women in extremist and armed group activities, including acts of violence—often in subordinate roles within hierarchical structures.^[29] While still in its infancy, some national policy-making initiatives have begun to adopt a gender perspective to enhance state stability. However, despite the escalating importance of the triple nexus, traditional security policy making rooted in gender and human security remains relatively uncommon, with climate-security policies seldom incorporating gender perspectives.

Carol Cohn and Claire Duncanson have delineated four essential ways in which national and international security discourse should center on climate change and gendered human security.^[30]

In discussions confined to traditional conceptions of warfare and international security, climate change must be factored in due to its intricate interactions with socioeconomic and political factors, complicating and exacerbating drivers of armed conflict.
Given the multifaceted ways in which climate change disrupts the peacebuilding process and intersects with various aspects of human and international security, climate change will serve as the overarching context within which all peacebuilding efforts take place.^[31]
Climate change is poised to divert resources away from peacebuilding initiatives toward the recovery of climate-damaged economies, restoration of disrupted public service systems, and repair of deteriorating infrastructures.
While women’s human security formed the core of UNSCR 1325, safeguarding women’s human security will prove unattainable without addressing the challenges posed by climate change.

As a result, any national or international security policy would lack comprehensiveness without addressing both climate change and gender, particularly gendered human insecurities. Below are examples illustrating the interplay and intersectionality of gender, climate, and conflict:^[32]

Early Warnings: Women often face limitations in their ability to make timely decisions and relocate due to factors such as lower access to mobile phones, internet technology, electricity, and education. These constraints may hinder women's capacity to respond to early warnings about natural disasters, exacerbating the impact of such events on women. Governmental failure to provide early warnings for climate disasters can incite public discontent and destabilize governments.
Healthcare: Climate change is expected to elevate the prevalence of diseases such as asthma, cardiovascular disease, malnutrition, and heatstroke among women, particularly pregnant and breastfeeding women. Climate crises may also lead to an increase in rates of child marriage and SGBV. Health crises can further amplify gender-specific rates of individual and organized crime, corruption, and economic and political instability, contributing to state fragility.
WASH (water, sanitation, hygiene): Water scarcity and poor-quality water sources are anticipated to heighten women's unpaid care and domestic workload, diminish women's health outcomes, and elevate the risk of physical injury for women, including injuries related to carrying heavy fuel and water loads. Clean water shortages may result in militant or terrorist control of water sources, often with hypermasculine undertones, escalating tensions between groups.
Education: Climate change is likely to disrupt educational infrastructure, lead to loss of teachers, and cause psychological distress in children, all of which may impede overall educational attainment, especially for girls. Reduced educational opportunities for boys may perpetuate norms that reinforce gender inequality, such as female genital mutilation/circumcision and other discriminatory practices like child marriage. Girls with limited access to education are more likely to experience child marriage at younger ages and higher fertility rates, diminishing their long-term human security. Moreover, education can be manipulated to perpetuate ideologies of othering through ethnocide (erasure of minority languages, traditions, and cultural values), dissemination of authoritarian or chauvinistic ideologies, and denial of education to marginalized groups (such as rival tribes or the marginalized gender group, typically women), serving as a weapon of warfare.

These and numerous other intersecting gender-climate-security risks are poised to undermine human stability and resilience in profound ways. The compromised human security experienced by women as a result of climate change is likely to result in fewer systemic resources and strategies to bolster climate security and mitigate climate-related conflicts. Moreover, the breakdown of climate and gender norms may influence the extent to which women and men are drawn into climate-related violence and conflict.

In sum, both gender and climate change warrant inclusion in national and international security deliberations. Indeed, addressing gender and climate in tandem is crucial for comprehending the intervening variables at the climate-security nexus, acknowledging "invisible" forms of violence within security paradigms, and fostering a more comprehensive understanding of climate resilience.^[33] Consequently, the intricacies of the triple nexus should be integrated into policies that transcend the limitations of traditional policy silos.^[34]

Women’s Political Leadership in Cross-cutting Policy Making

Building upon prior scholarship, this study seeks to investigate whether augmenting women’s substantive political representation enhances the integration of climate and security policies. Given that gender equality and climate change exert significant influence on political stability, both policy priorities are pertinent to the development of foreign policy. Consequently, two instrumental policy-making mechanisms come into focus in this discourse.

Firstly, a WPS NAP delineates a country’s strategy for implementing the WPS agenda, outlining how various WPS objectives will be financed, executed, and monitored. Essentially, a WPS NAP endeavors to mainstream gender considerations across government policies and structures, playing a pivotal role in formulating gender-transformative measures for preventing and responding to conflicts.

Secondly, a NDC represents a country’s policy framework for implementing its commitments under the Paris Agreement on climate change. Analogous to a WPS NAP, an NDC serves as the government’s blueprint for mainstreaming climate change considerations across all sectors, essential for achieving carbon reduction targets, devising climate hazard mitigation strategies, and fortifying resilience against climate-related disasters.

The quantitative findings of this study corroborate existing scholarship demonstrating how a higher level of gender equality in parliament may influence the nature and effectiveness of policy making regarding women and climate change. However, upon qualitative examination of policy documents from Indo-Pacific countries, the impact of increased women’s representation in policy making appears less evident. These findings suggest that while women’s meaningful participation in policy making is imperative, a robust application of gender perspectives is indispensable for crafting more efficacious WPS and climate-security policies.

Methodology

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Figure 1. Flowchart of this study’s research objectives

This secondary data study employs a multi-step methodology, comprising two quantitative preparatory stages followed by a third quantitative assessment of the paper's hypothesis, alongside a qualitative analysis of cross-references within a sample of policies. Subsequently, a brief analysis is conducted on cross-references within WPS NAP and NDC policies from the Indo-Pacific region to evaluate the quality of cross-references therein.

The initial quantitative preparatory phase involves analyzing which countries have adopted a gender-responsive NDC, a climate-compatible WPS NAP, both, or neither. This entails conducting a content analysis of English-language WPS NAPs to identify documents referencing climate change, as well as analyzing English-language NDCs to ascertain references to gender.

A second preparatory quantitative analysis investigates whether countries with higher IPU Rank (IPU Parline’s ranking of countries based on averages of women in national parliaments) or higher IPU Percentage (IPU Parline’s reported percentage of women in upper house/senate and lower/single house in national parliament) are more inclined to have an NDC, a WPS NAP, or both.

A third quantitative examination of the central hypothesis of this study involves analyzing whether countries with higher IPU Rank and/or IPU Percentage of women in national parliament exhibit a greater likelihood of including cross-references to gender in their NDCs, cross-references to climate change in their WPS NAPs, or both. Statistical analysis is employed to explore the bivariate relationship between the presence of a climate-compatible NAP or gender-responsive NDC (or both) and a country's IPU 'women in national parliaments' Rank and Percentage

Narratives within NDCs were individually scrutinized to identify references to terms such as "women," "gender equality," "gender," and "gender equity," which were then coded as either 'yes' (containing a gender cross-reference) or “no” (lacking a gender cross-reference). Similarly, NAP narratives were reviewed for mentions of terms such as "climate change" and "global warming," coded as either “yes” (including a climate cross-reference) or 'no' (without a climate cross-reference).

The final phase of this study entails a concise qualitative analysis of cross-references within Indo-Pacific policies. This involves examining a sample of WPS NAP and NDC policies' texts to evaluate the quality of cross-references contained therein.

For the purposes of this study, the following UNESCO definition of gender-responsiveness is used in relation to NDCs: “Refers to a policy or program which fulfills two basic criteria: a) gender norms, roles, and relations are considered and b) measures are taken to actively reduce the harmful effects of gender norms, roles, and relations—including gender inequality” (GPE (Global Partnership for Education) and UNGEI.^[35]

Additionally, the qualitative analysis proposes a definition of climate-compatible security derived from the concept of climate-compatible development put forth by the Climate & Development Knowledge Network.^[36] In this context, climate-compatible security refers to measures that mitigate the harm inflicted by climate change, particularly for fragile states, while maximizing the numerous opportunities to enhance national and human security through low-emission, resilient future endeavors.

This study builds on research done by Seymour Smith and that of Women’s Environment and Development Organization’s (WEDO) Gender Climate Tracker.^[37] It utilizes more recent data and juxtaposes its findings with these earlier results concerning the influence of women’s representation on the adoption of gender-responsive NDCs and climate-compatible WPS NAPs, and/or both.

Quantitative Analysis

Countries with NDCs and NAPs

Out of the 194 countries examined, 186 (95.9 percent of all countries) possess an NDC, while 87 (44.8 percent of all countries) have a WPS NAP. Eighty-six countries (44.3 percent) possess both an NDC and a WPS NAP, indicating a high likelihood that countries with WPS NAPs also have NDCs. The majority, constituting 100 countries, have an NDC but no NAP, whereas only one country, Yemen, possesses solely a WPS NAP without an NDC. Additionally, seven countries, comprising 3.6 percent, have neither an NDC nor a WPS NAP. Visual representations of these findings are provided in figures 2 and 3.^[38]

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Figure 2. Illustration of which countries have only an NDC, only a NAP, both an NDC and a NAP, or neither an NDC or a NAP

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Figure 3. Showing percentage of countries with only an NDC, only a NAP, both an NDC and a NAP, or neither an NDC or a NAP

Presence of Climate and Gender Cross-references

Examination of the texts of all English-language NDCs for gender terms such as “women,” “gender equality,” “gender,” and “gender equity” revealed that out of 186 countries with an NDC, 99 (53.4 percent of countries with an NDC) incorporate gender cross-references (Appendix data: table 3). Analysis of the English-language WPS NAP narratives for climate terms such as “climate change” or “global warming” found that among the 87 countries with a NAP, only 22 (25.9 percent of countries with a WPS NAP) make reference to climate change (Appendix data: table 4). Merely 17 countries (9.3 percent of all countries) possess both an NDC with gender cross-references and a NAP with climate cross-references (Croatia,* Denmark,* Finland,* Germany,* Ireland,* Italy,* Kenya, Latvia,* Liberia, Mali, Netherlands,* Nigeria, Norway, Poland,* Senegal, Slovenia,* Tajikistan).^[39] Visual representations of these findings are available in figure 4.

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Figure 4. Visualization of proportion of countries with an NDC that includes gender cross-references, or a NAP that includes climate cross-references. (Note: results shown combine all EU member states into one entity)

Cross-referenced Terms in NDCs and WPS NAPs against IPU Metrics

The preceding data was subsequently scrutinized in relation to IPU Parline’s global and regional averages of women in national parliaments, denoted as IPU Percentage, and monthly rank, denoted as IPU Rank).^[40]

Upon comparing IPU Rank with the adoption of an NDC, WPS NAP, or both, a weak, negative correlation was observed (coefficient -0.29, p-value = 0.0000616). Countries possessing both an NDC and a NAP exhibited an average rank of 76, while countries with solely an NDC had an average rank of 105. Conversely, countries lacking either an NDC or a WPS NAP displayed an average rank of 127, with one country possessing solely a NAP ranking 184. These findings are illustrated in figure 5.

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Figure 5. Visualization of IPU Monthly Rank and presence of an NDC, a WPS NAP, both, or neither, comparing all EU member states counted individually (top numbers, lighter orange) to all EU member states counted as one combined entity (lower numbers, darker orange)

Upon comparison of the IPU Percentage (of only lower or single houses) with the adoption of an NDC or WPS NAP, a moderate, positive correlation emerged (coefficient 0.42, p-value = 0.000099). Countries possessing both an NDC and a WPS NAP exhibited an average IPU Percentage of 28 percent women in their lower/single houses. In contrast, countries with solely an NDC (the majority) demonstrated an average IPU Percentage of 22 percent women. Conversely, one country possessing solely a WPS NAP had 0 percent women in its lower/single houses, while countries devoid of both an NDC or WPS NAP displayed an average IPU Percentage of 12 percent women. Figure 6 provides a visual representation of these calculations, with all EU members combined into a single unit.

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Figure 6. Visualization of IPU Percentage of women in lower/single house and presence of an NDC, a WPS NAP, both, or neither, including all EU member states counted as one combined entity

Finally, IPU Rank was examined in relation to whether a country’s NDC included gender references and whether a country’s WPS NAP included references to climate change. Countries that had either an NDC or a WPS NAP but lacked cross-references exhibited an average IPU Rank of 100, representing the lowest group in this study. Countries with solely an NDC containing gender references demonstrated an average IPU Rank of 90. Given that 86 out of 87 countries with a NAP also possessed an NDC, it is perhaps unsurprising that the countries in the two remaining categories ranked similarly: countries with references to climate change in their WPS NAP had an average rank of 63, while countries with both an NDC with gender references and a WPS NAP with climate change references had an average rank of 66. These findings suggest that countries with an NDC or WPS NAP with cross-references generally exhibit a higher IPU Rank on average. However, no correlation at the 95-percent confidence level was identified for this relationship; this could be attributed to the fact that this group comprises countries with similar IPU Ranks, making it challenging to discern variation among them. Furthermore, these results suggest that countries with greater representation of women in parliament are more inclined to have a WPS NAP mentioning climate change, potentially enhancing the likelihood of the same country including gender references in their NDC. These findings are depicted in figure 7.

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Figure 7. Visualization of IPU Monthly Rank and presence of a gender-responsive NDC, a climate-inclusive WPS NAP, both, or neither, comparing all showing EU member states counted individually (top numbers, lighter orange) to all EU member states counted as one combined entity (lower numbers, darker orange)

The percentage of women in upper or lower parliamentary houses (combined) was also assessed in relation to whether a country possessed an NDC or WPS NAP with cross-references, both, or neither. Countries with cross-references in their WPS NAP demonstrated a combined average of 38.37 percent women (the highest). Those with both a WPS NAP and NDC with cross-references exhibited a combined average of 25.17 percent women, while countries with solely an NDC with cross-references had a combined average of 27.42 percent women. Conversely, countries lacking cross-references recorded a combined average of 23.18 percent women. No correlation at the 95-percent confidence level was discerned for this relationship, although the similarity among countries in IPU Percentage may account for this outcome. Note: Countries with cross-references in both their NDC and WPS NAP, on average, have nearly 7 percent more women in parliaments than those lacking cross-references. The results of this analysis are presented in table 1.

Table 1. Breakdown of results comparing IPU Percentage of women in upper or lower house and presence of a gender-responsive NDC, a climate-inclusive WPS NAP, both, or neither

Cross Reference	Number of Countries	Average Country Rank	% Women—Lower House/Single	% Women—Upper/Senate
NAP references climate/global warming	5	62.8	30.1%	38.37%
Both cross references	17	66.0	29.68%	25.17%
NDC references women/gender equality	92	92.4	24.28%	27.42%
No cross references	68	100.3	22.82%	23.18%

Qualitative Analysis: Sample Analysis of Three Gender-Responsive NDCs and Climate-Compatible NAPs in Indo-Pacific Countries

Merely tallying cross-referenced terms is insufficient for evaluating a policy’s effectiveness in terms of commitments made to mainstream gender or address climate change. Indo-Pacific nations have been identified as facing some of the most significant climate risks globally, coupled with consistently low Gender Inequality Index scores.^[41] How do their IPU scores and policies align with this study’s definitions of gender-responsive NDCs and climate-compatible NAPs? While conducting a comprehensive analysis of the quality of all gender and climate change cross-references in policy documents adopted by Indo-Pacific countries exceeds the scope of this article,^[42] the following offers a brief qualitative analysis of select Indo-Pacific countries’ policies to assess whether they meet the criteria for gender-responsive NDCs and climate-compatible WPS NAPs according to this study's definitions. The subsequent analysis employs a simple scoring matrix for each country to evaluate the extent of meaningful engagement with the gender-climate-security nexus:

0 Rating: No relevant policy (NDC or WPS NAP) or no cross-referenced terms;

1 Rating: Cursory mention of cross-referenced terms;

2 Rating: All references included in a “1 Rating,” as well as mention of connections between cross-referenced terms and the harm that exists at the gender-climate-security nexus; and

3 Rating: All references included in a “2 Rating,” as well as mentions of specific policies for addressing harm caused at the gender-climate-security nexus.^[43]

Table 2. Indo-Pacific Countries with the Highest and Lowest Gender-Climate-Security Risks Compared to NDC with Gender-Responsive Cross-References and/or WPS NAPs with Climate-Compatible Cross-References

	NDC Gender-Responsive Cross-References Score	WPS NAP Climate-Compatible Cross-References Score	IPU Rank	IPU % Women in Lower/Single House
New Zealand	0	0	6	49.2
Australia	0	2	24	41
Timor-Leste	0	0	27	40
Nepal	1	0	49	33.6
Vietnam	2	0	62	30.3
Singapore	0	0	66	29.1
Philippines	1	0	79	27.3
China	0	0	95	24.9
Laos	0	0	104	22.0
Indonesia	1	0	106	21.9
Bangladesh	0	2	109	20.9
Cambodia	2	0	110	20.8
Fiji	0	0	119	19.6
South Korea	0	0	124	18.6
Bhutan	0	0	131	17.4
Mongolia	0	0	133	17.1
Thailand	0	0	137	15.8
Malaysia	0	0	140	15
India	1	0	142	14.9
Samoa	0	0	152	13
Japan	0	0	164	9.9
Brunei	0	0	165	9.1
Sri Lanka	1	0	178	5.3
Maldives	0	0	179	4.6
Tonga	2	0	182	3.7
Papua New Guinea	1	0	185	1.7

Overall, the cross-references found in the WPS NAPs are brief and lack detailed mandates for tracking, measurement, or funding, indicating a general lack of substantive engagement with the triple nexus. Specifically, when compared against this study’s definition of a climate-compatible policy,^[44] it becomes evident that none of the documents adequately address climate change to be considered climate-compatible. Vietnam, positioned in the middle with an IPU Rank of 62, stands out as one of the most effective countries in linking climate insecurities to gender issues. Its WPS NAP covers gender-specific impacts such as bodily harm during disasters, adaptation risks, livelihood and education impacts, public health risks, and loss and damage risks. Australia, with one of the highest IPU Ranks, acknowledges the link between climate change and transboundary security challenges, fragility, and conflict in its WPS NAP. However, it fails to outline policies addressing compound risks. Neither country’s text defines policies to mitigate climate-induced harms experienced by women or connects policies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to positive impacts on national security or women’s human security. No other countries in the Indo-Pacific list have WPS NAPs referencing climate change.

Turning to NDCs, once again, policies show limited language regarding the detrimental impacts of gender norms, roles, and relations in a warming world.^[45] Bangladesh (IPU Rank 109) references various policies in its NDC (Standing Order on Disasters, Bangladesh Climate Strategy and Action Plan, Climate Gender Action Plan) that delve deeper into gender considerations. Similarly, Tonga (IPU Rank 182, near the bottom) references several gender-focused policies in its NDC, including The Family Protection Act, the National Policy on Gender and Development, and the Strategic Plan. Cross-reference scores for NDCs are distributed fairly evenly across countries along the IPU Rank spectrum.

Discussion

The results of the preceding quantitative analysis suggest that an increase in women’s representation in national parliaments may influence whether a state adopts cross-cutting gender-climate-security policies such as gender-responsive NDCs or climate-compatible WPS NAPs. As the average IPU Rank and IPU Percentage of women’s involvement in national parliament increases, countries are more likely to have developed an NDC, a WPS NAP, or both. Similarly, as the average IPU Rank and IPU Percentage of women in a national parliament increases, countries are more likely to have developed gender-responsive NDCs, climate-compatible WPS NAPs, or both, evidenced only by the presence of specific gender or climate-security terms.

However, despite these quantitative findings, the qualitative analysis of the texts does not strongly support this conclusion. For Indo-Pacific countries, there is no discernible pattern indicating that a higher IPU Rank would predict whether a country has a gender-responsive NDC or a climate-compatible NAP. Conducting a comprehensive study of all complete texts against IPU scores is beyond the scope of this research but could provide further insights into whether the presence of more women in parliament improves gender-climate-security policy outcomes. Unfortunately, this analysis cannot determine whether women parliamentarians' participation in NAP and NDC policy making was meaningful, or whether sincere attempts were made to incorporate a gender perspective in such policies. The lack of conclusive evidence in the qualitative analysis may simply point to a failure to thoroughly and meaningfully engage women and their perspectives.

Further research could investigate possible confounding variables that explain these findings or explore the mechanisms by which women’s increased parliamentary representation translates into a higher likelihood of having a gender-responsive NDC or a climate-compatible WPS NAP.

Indeed, it is not guaranteed that more women in parliament lead to more substantive representation of women’s issues in policy outcomes. Some scholars argue that a critical mass of women legislators (often set at 30 percent) must be reached for women’s presence to make a difference, while others suggest women’s impact may stem from “critical actors” brokering agreements across parties and genders.^[46] However, even when women’s representation increases, barriers may prevent women from substantially influencing policy outcomes. Feminist political economists suggest that the continued domination of political institutions and practices by men, through ‘shadowy arbitrary arrangements’ and chummy networks, often limits the effectiveness of women legislators by excluding them from the clientelistic, old-boys social and political networks through which many decisions flow.^[47] Therefore, whether women legislators can influence policy development to foreground intersectional concerns requires addressing the underlying patriarchal practices and institutions foundational in most political systems worldwide.

Moreover, even when states with higher percentages of women in parliament enact laws addressing intersectional concerns, the resultant policies may lack the depth and specificity needed to bring about distinct outcomes. Therefore, while enhancing gender parity in national legislatures is a moral obligation, employing a rigorous gender perspective may prove more effective in crafting policies with tangible benefits for climate resilience and women’s security.^[48] As posited by Cali Nathanson and Amy Myers Jaffe,

Part of women’s contribution to global climate diplomacy has been their integration of a gender perspective, which has been shown to increase the efficiency and efficacy of climate policy by ensuring that it addresses rather than hinders gender equity. If climate policies are to meet the moment, they will need to go beyond economic and technological considerations to address more holistic ones linked to human values, such as equity and the interests of underrepresented groups.”^[49]

Conclusion and Policy Recommendations

This article followed four steps: (1) analyzing which countries had a gender-responsive NDC, a climate-compatible WPS NAP, both, or neither; (2) assessing whether countries with higher IPU Rank and IPU Percentage of women in lower/single houses had an increased likelihood of developing an NDC, a WPS NAP, or both; (3) examining whether countries with higher IPU Rank and/or IPU Percentage of women in lower/single houses had an increased likelihood of having a gender-responsive NDC, a climate-compatible WPS NAP, or both; and (4) qualitatively analyzing Indo-Pacific countries’ NAPs and NDCs and comparing those texts to IPU Rank to determine whether IPU Rank is predictive of developing a gender-responsive NDC, a climate-compatible WPS NAP, or both.

On the first objective, among the 186 countries with an NDC, 112 (60.2 percent of countries with an NDC) included gender cross-references. Of the 87 countries with a NAP, only 23 (26.4 percent of countries with a WPS NAP) referred to climate change. Merely 18 countries (9.3 percent of all countries) had both an NDC with gender cross-references and a NAP with climate cross-references (including Croatia, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Kenya, Latvia, Liberia, Mali, Netherlands, Nigeria, Norway, Poland, Senegal, Slovenia, and Tajikistan). In essence, countries are least likely to have both a climate-compatible NAP and a gender-responsive NDC, while they are most likely to have only a gender-responsive NDC.

On the second objective, overall, this study provides evidence that countries with higher IPU Rank and higher IPU Percentage are more likely to have passed an NDC, a WPS NAP, or both an NDC and a WPS NAP. A higher IPU Rank did not increase the likelihood of a country having only a WPS NAP, though IPU Percentage did.

On the third objective, countries with only a climate-compatible NAP (5 total countries) had the highest IPU Rank (average of 63) and the highest IPU Percentage of women in lower/single houses (average of 30.1 percent). Countries with both a climate-compatible WPS NAP and a gender-responsive NDC (17 total countries) had the second-highest IPU Rank (average 66) and the second-highest IPU Percentage of women in lower/single houses (average of 29.7 percent). Finally, those countries with only a gender-responsive NDC (92 total countries) had the third-highest IPU Rank (average 92) and the third-highest IPU Percentage (average of 24.3 percent women in lower/single houses). These results suggest that it may be easier for parliamentarians to argue for cross-cutting policy outcomes starting from a gender perspective (beginning with a NAP), whereas adding gender considerations to climate policies may be a more challenging change to effect.

On the fourth objective, no discernible patterns were found indicating that a better IPU Rank would predict whether a country would adopt a gender-responsive NDC, a climate-compatible WPS NAP, or both. Further analysis of these findings is required to identify whether increasing women’s meaningful participation in measurable ways in policy making would produce more intersectionally sensitive climate and gender policies.

The reality remains that gender, climate, and security are overlapping in increasingly complex ways, necessitating more nuanced, culturally contextual policies to address these pressures effectively. Diverse perspectives will be required from all levels of society. The results of this study are too ambiguous to suggest that increasing women’s participation in parliaments would not substantively improve cross-cutting policies to ensure more gender-equitable and climate-compatible outcomes. Furthermore, as a matter of human rights, states should continually strive to increase women’s full and meaningful national political participation. Numerous strategies have been identified as effective tools for increasing the number of women in government, including mentorship programs, public awareness campaigns, increased financial support for women’s campaigns, quotas, and fostering women’s caucuses.^[50] Given the existential hazards found at the gender-climate-security nexus, the international community must be encouraged to continue to push for greater women’s inclusion in these important decision-making circles. ♦

Maryruth Belsey Priebe

Maryruth Belsey Priebe (CAN) is the director for the Women, Peace and Security (WPS program and a senior fellow at Pacific Forum International, a Harvard international relations graduate student, and the author of numerous articles. Using social science, feminist foreign policy perspectives/analyses/theories, and data analysis, her research focuses on the nexus of gender, climate change, and peace and security in the Asia-Pacific. Maryruth’s circular food economy policy work has been selected for inclusion in the OpenIDEO Food Systems Game Changers Lab, and she has held several research and fellowship positions focused on women’s leadership. She is also a member of Harvard’s Climate Leaders Program and the Research Network on Women, Peace and Security, and is a volunteer for multiple gender-climate causes. Maryruth tweets @greenwriting.

Appendix

Table 3. Country NDC cross-references to gender/gender equality/women^[51]

Country	NAP mentions of gender/women/gender equality/gender equity
Angola	The underlining policies supporting the implementation of the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) mitigation and adaptation contributions and actions to be implemented in this context include cross-cutting issues which are gender sensitive and therefore will take into account women as important decision makers regarding energy consumption in particular.
Argentina	Likewise, special attention will be paid to the effects on populations in a situation of vulnerability, such as women and diversities, youth, indigenous peoples and people with disabilities, considering that these groups have a limited participation in decision-making and access to resources, and that they are overrepresented in the informal economy and unemployment. By 2030, policies will have been developed in such a way that gender is not a reason for social, political and economic inequality. In this regard, the physical, political and economic autonomy of women and LGBTI +, the sovereignty over their bodies, lives and territories, and their ability to make decisions will have been strengthened. Policies would be implemente d so that women and LGBTI + have social and environmental conditions of habitability of the territories. To this end, it is considered essential—and will be promoted—an active participation of women and diversities in the consultation and decision-making processes in all aspects of climate policy. The voice and representation of women and LGBTI + over the territories they inhabit will be strengthened through access to material, educational, informational, training, financial and technological resources; and the construction of strategic alliances that strengthen their role as agents of change in the processes of adaptation and mitigation to climate change will be promoted.
Armenia	Public consultation process of the NDC update has been carried out in line with the government procedures, including involvement of the civil society, in a gender-responsive manner followed by a parliamentary debate. The implementation of the NDC will be supported on subnational level by involving local communities and encouraging all stakeholders to take action, including NGO's, taking into account the needs of the youth, vulnerable groups, in a gender-responsive manner. Maintaining participatory process in the NDC review and public consultation mechanism during preparation of the next NDCs, in a gender-responsive manner.
Austria	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Barbados	The BRIDGE (Building Capacity and Regional Integration for Development of a Generation of Entrepreneurs) in Sustainable Energy Information and Communication Technologies project is focused on developing human capital, while encouraging gender equality, to meet the expected future demand for technicians, professionals and entrepreneurs in sustainable energy and information and communication technology sectors; The sectors identifies as most vulnerable to climate change are agriculture, fisheries tourism, water, human health, coastal resources and human settlements. Climate change will also impact vulnerable groups disproportionately, including youth and gender perspectives, which are cross-cutting concerns in Barbados' national development planning.
Belgium	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Benin	Benin's NDC will be implemented under the authority of the Ministry responsible for the environment which plays the role of National Focal Point of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change with the effective participation of all the stakeholders, namely the Technical and Financial Partners, governmental and nongovernmental stakeholders with a consideration for gender and social inclusion (sector Ministries, local communities, private sector, civil society, etc.) Improving Benin's agricultural performance to enable it to ensure durably food and nutritional sovereignty, to contribute to the economic and social development of the men and women of Benin and to hit the Sustainable development Goals (SDGs) in particular the SDGs 1,2, 12, and 13. Rehabilitating irrigation schemes (i) 1,000 ha of developed irrigated areas with perfect water control, (ii) 3,500 ha of swampy areas including up to 2,800 has of plain development in flood zones and 700 has of rice growing swamps developed by the company, (iii) 300 has of market-gardening for women. Increasing by at least 50% by 2025 the current levels of agricultural productivity (improving professional knowledge and technological innovations for men and women; promoting the development of water schemes. Reducing pregnant women and under five children's vulnerability to diseases related to climate risks in Benin.
Brazil	Domestic Institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner: Articles 5, 231 and 232 of the Brazilian Constitution establish ample rights and guarantees for all Brazilian citizens, paying due attention to the special needs of women and indigenous peoples.
Bulgaria	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Burkina Faso	The households, and principally the women can then save the costs incurred for health care. The Coordination Unit will work with the above departments and other cross-cutting ministries, such as the Ministry of Economy and Finance, the Ministry of the Promotion of Women and Gender and the Ministry of International Cooperation, within the framework of the financing agreements.
Burundi	Strengthen the aptitudes of actors (especially women and farmers) in new technical processes, in the interest of intensified, sustainable production methods (new crop systems and techniques); Gender, youth and vulnerable groups are concerns that have not always been taken into account in Burundi's national and sectoral socioeconomic development plans. In its Vision 2025, the Government of Burundi considers these to be cross-cutting issues to be incorporated into all development programs. The same will apply to the implementation of the INDC.
Cabo Verde	The update deepens and moves beyond the initial set of actions and commitments with respect to scope, sector ambition, balancing of mitigation and the adaptation action, climate justice and gender equality, as well as transparency and governance. Finally, Cabo Verde needs inclusive and gender-sensitive strategies to enhance the adaptive capacity of all of its communities and economic sectors, including food production and tourism. They will go substantially beyond the commitments put forward in Cabo Verde's initial NDC submission, i.e. in terms of scope, sector ambition. coherence between adaptation and mitigation, horizontal themes, including gender equality, and notable transparency. Develop a gender analysis of women and men in the blue economy (promoting entrepreneurship, developing jobs for the young, encouraging innovation) by 2022 and identify priority gender-specific actions. Women, as raisers of the next generation, can be important stewards of intergenerational natural resources preservation. While many gender equality targets have been met by Cabo Verde, gender roles continue to deny women full equality to access to resources. The key issues that lock the majority of women in poverty and low productivity are their lack of time—for productive labor, of land—for building assets, of financing—for extending businesses, and of knowledge to increase production and market access. The key to the next great progress on gender equality in Cabo Verde is women's economic empowerment. For this NDC the sectors of energy, water, land use/agriculture, blue economy and tourism are the focus of gender equality. By 2022, integrate climate issues and Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE) into the updated gender equality plane and strategies...
Cambodia	Summary of gender reference Cambodia’s Climate Change Strategic Plan includes a strategic objective to “reduce sectoral, regional, gender vulnerability and health risks to climate change impacts.”
Cameroon	Summary of gender reference - Gender-mainstreaming in adaptation (agriculture);—Women as a vulnerable group (WVG): The INDC mentions Cameroonians—particularly women, children and vulnerable people—and economic sectors of the country acquire greater resilience and greater resilience to negative impacts of climate change.—Women as stakeholders (S) whereby women have an important role to play in the thematic Program 13, under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Water and Energy (MINEE), by: Strengthening and securing access to water resources and sanitation services in a changing climate; securing environmental services; management of surface and groundwater for water, protection of source of heads; Fixing the banks and soils; role of women; plans for using surface water or deep; struggles against pollution (agricultural, industrial, medical, etc.); Prevention of extreme events (floods) ; conservation of aquatic biodiversity.—Women as beneficiaries of projects (B): Increasing the resilience of productive (agricultural) practices—Strengthening the capacity of actors (especially young women and elderly, indigenous peoples, farmers, etc.) concerning new crop as part of intensified and sustainable production methods .—Also, in the mitigation efforts within the sectors of “Agriculture / Fisheries / Livestock / Forests, women are said to be co-beneficiaries of agricultural development and deforestation mitigation strategies; whereby, the empowerment of women and protection of vulnerable populations and minorities is highlighted in the text.
Central African Republic	Vulnerability profile: Extreme Hazards (torrential rains, floods and drought), most vulnerable areas *south, north, northeast) and most vulnerable populations (women, children, indigenous peoples and the aged, i.e. around 75%).
Chad	Implementation of Chad's INDC will place particular emphasis on better taking account of human rights and equality between sexes. Reinforce stakeholder attitudes, (in particular in relation to women and farmers), with regards to new techniques in terms of intensive and sustainable methods of production. Women and children are identified among the vulnerable group together with the elderly people and the disabled heads of the family.
Chile	The proposed targets will include a focus on gender, enabling development of more transparent, inclusive and targeted initiatives to decrease and eradicate existing gender gaps, and recognizing the role of women as agents of change, capable to provide significant contribution in climate action. Gender equality and equity: The design and implementation of this NDC must consider a fair allocation of charges, costs and benefits, with a focus on gender and special emphasis on sectors, communities and ecosystems vulnerable to climate change. It will be developed and implemented considering sustainable development goals and criteria of age and gender equity and just transition, integrating knowledge as specific needs of vulnerable communities.
Comoros	Women mentioned in the adaptation profile stakeholders (S), specifically as a long-term strategy for adaptation by increasing the involvement of women and communities in environmental protection in terms of decision-making given their growing role in the development of the domestic economy; and (iv) develop resilience of populations to disasters and climate change.
Costa Rica	Summary of gender reference References to women/gender in relation to all climate policies and actions, including monitoring and review framework. Both climate policies and the actions that derive from them will base themselves in the country's historical commitment to universal human rights and gender equality principles. Costa Rica favors a transformational approach to gender in public climate change policy, and supports the participation of women (AC) in policy making and climate actions implementation. This will require a full compliance with Cancun's safeguards on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (REDD+), as well as securing indigenous peoples' Principle of Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC). Also, it's expected to increase citizen forums through the pre-2020 period to define the best climate governance arrangements to deliver on the commitments acquired in this National Contribution. In relation to Means of Implementation: The government will confirm its role as a facilitator of enabling conditions which will allow the different sectors, communities and society in general define their mitigation and adaptation goals, based on their own economic, social and cultural, gender-sensitive options for the well-being of a low-emission economy.
Cote d'Ivoire	Women mentioned in the mitigation context as beneficiaries of projects (B) (agriculture/forestry) through the development of sustainable energy solutions for domestic populations cooking needs by improving the living conditions of women in rural areas. Women mentioned in the adaptation context as vulnerable groups (WVG) (strengthening agricultural, animal and fisheries sector): promoting women's access to rural land. Women mentioned as stakeholders (S) in the "Means of implementation to adaptation measures of the INDC": projects highlight capacity building of stakeholders (especially women, farmers, etc.) to new technical routes in the context of intensified and sustainable modes of production.
Croatia	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Cuba	From a social standpoint, working and living conditions will improve, mainly for women, by improving cooking conditions and working conditions.
Cyprus	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Czech Republic	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Democratic Republic of Congo	Summary of gender reference Women mentioned in the adaptation context as a vulnerable group (WVG) and as beneficiaries of projects (B) through the PANA—AFE (2015-2020): strengthening resilience of women and children to address climate change. It is the commitment of the Democratic Republic of Congo to protect the most vulnerable to climate risks.
Denmark	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Dominica	Under priorities for building climate resilience: Creating the supportive enabling framework whereby communities and vulnerable segments of society (women, youth elderly, people with disabilities) can manage their own climate change risks, thereby addressing climate change impacts on vulnerable sectors (particularly agriculture, fisheries and water resources) and threats to food security, human health, poverty alleviation, sustainable livelihoods and economic growth; Legal establishment of Climate Change Trust Fund in addition to US5 million seed funding to the Climate Change Trust Fund to provide support to priority community climate change risks management measures identified through community vulnerability mapping and adaptation planning and establishment of micro-finance for private sector and vulnerable segments of society (farmers, fisher-folk, women and vulnerable communities in particular the Kalinago people).
Dominican Republic	Summary of gender reference Women as vulnerable group and as agents/drivers of change: Aware that climate change will impact vulnerable groups of people in different ways, the gender perspective is a cross-cutting issue in the national development model. Therefore, the role of women as agents of change is recognized, and their participation is encouraged in the transformation of society toward a low-carbon and resilient development. The National Development Strategy (NDS) articulates strengthening human resources, with emphasis on youth and future generations.
Ecuador	Gender mainstreaming implies the integration of the gender approach from the preparation, design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies, regulatory measures and initiatives, with the aim of promoting equality between women and men and combating discrimination. To carry out an adequate incorporation of the gender approach and its mainstreaming in the formation of the NDC, one of the strategies implemented in the permanent methodology of relevant actors in the subject at the national level, such as the Council for Gender Equality. In this way, in the participatory process based on the gender approach, the reflection and formulation of proposals that promote the involvement of women and men from civil society, community and private organizations and representatives of the different levels of the administration were sought.
Eritrea	Besides reducing the pressure on the forest resources, the advantages of these stoves lie in the use of waste biomass as well as securing the health and well-being of women and children. This includes various administrative regions of the country with the aim of reducing social and geographical inequality as well as narrowing the gaps between women and men's rights. Identification of the technical support needed to introduce new and additional policies and actions that stimulate and enable invest and mitigation actions for the period at all levels of government, as well as to strengthen the gender issues into capacity building, prioritize south-south cooperation to enhance regional cooperation.
Estonia	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Eswatini	Underlying this vision is a focus on sustainable economic development, social justice, political stability, poverty eradication, employment recreation, gender equity, social integration and environmental protection.
Finland	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
France	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Gabon	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Gambia	Among the priorities identified for sound environmental management is: ensuring the participation of the private sector, CSO, nongovernmental organization, and youth and women's groups in sustainable natural resource consumption
Georgia	The observation of impacts of extreme weather events on Georgia's population, induced by the climate change during the last decades reveals the following vulnerable groups requiring urgent adaptation measures: children and adolescents, women, elderly persons, persons with disabilities, person with chronic diseases, and eco-migrants displaced as a result of disasters caused by climate change or those, who are threatened to be eco migrated due to the climate change. Georgia, within its framework of national adaptation plan, commits to identify the needs of children and women and set priorities within the climate change adaptation measures; Georgia's updated NDC acknowledges the nationalization of targets 5.1-4.6 and 5.1 and 5.b of Sustainable Development Goal 5 on the achievement of gender equality and empowerment all women girls. Given that the majority of teachers at primary and secondary schools, 58% lecturers at universities, and 65% of doctors are women, Georgia intends empowering women as agents of change through involving them in decision-making processes addressing healthcare issues induced by climate change and related activities and programs, such as awareness raising on climate change, capacity building and knowledge sharing aiming at changing behavior. Georgia further considers to empower women as agents of change through their participation in decision-making processes related to energy efficiency measures and efficient use of water resources in households. Georgia's updated NDC invites all stakeholders and relevant domestic organizations to provide adaptation resources channeled toward women wherever their vulnerability level is high. Georgia's updated NDC is in compliance with Article 11 of the Constitution of Georgia on the right to equality, Law of Georgia on Gender Equality, Decision 21/CP.22 on Gender and Climate Change, and enhanced Lima work program on gender and its gender action plan. Georgia's updated NDC intends to collect, manage, report and archive information on gender-disaggregated relevant data in its national reports related to the greenhouse gas mitigation and climate change adaptation. In addition, Georgia intends to carry out gender analysis capacity building and knowledge sharing within the climate-related projects. For taking into consideration the particular interests, needs, capabilities, roles and responsibilities of the key stakeholders, especially the vulnerable groups, the meetings with the vulnerable groups and civic organizations working on the climate change and gender issues have been conducted during the process of updating the document.
Germany	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Ghana	Under the INDC Adaptation Policy Actions: Resilience for gender and the vulnerable: Implementation of community led adaptation and livelihood diversification for vulnerable groups
Greece	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Guatemala	Summary of gender reference Women mentioned as vulnerable group (WV), since the most impacted population groups are indigenous peoples, subsistence farmers and artisanal fishermen, including women and children. Note also that the Framework Law on Climate Change also safeguards human rights and gender equality.
Guinea	Summary of gender reference Women mentioned in the National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) as a vulnerable group (WVG), stating the most vulnerable groups to climate change in different regions of the country include poor communities in rural areas such as farmers and small producers (men and women) and people whose livelihood mainly depends on the use of natural resources (hunters, fishermen, salt producers, etc).
Haiti	Summary of gender reference Women are taken into account in the implementation phase: gender will need to be mainstreamed throughout the NDC implementation process.
Honduras	Summary of gender reference Women mentioned as vulnerable groups (WVG). The Republic of Honduras believes necessary policies and measures to combat global warming focus on the ‘human face’ of climate change. To do this, the actions to take should improve the living conditions of the people whose situation may be more vulnerable to climate change. These actions should ensure a transversal perspective of human rights and gender equality, ensuring that women, indigenous peoples and Afro-Hondurans have full and effective participation in decision-making. This message of hope is already included in the policies of the Republic of Honduras within the strategic plan of government " Plan of All for a Better Life ". Also, a gender perspective is essential to include in a model of sustainable national development aspect. Therefore, recognizes the role of women as agents/drivers of change, which must be taken into account in making decisions that allow the development of a low-carbon society and resistant to the effects of climate change.
Hungary	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Iceland	Men and women shall have equal rights in every respect. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples in a gender-responsive manner. Iceland's NDC is prepared in the context of commitments to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities and sustainable development. Act on equal gender right and gender equality No 150/2020 is to prevent gender discrimination and to create and maintain equal rights and opportunities for all genders in all aspects of the community.
India	India's contribution takes into account its commitment to conservation of nature as well as the imperatives of meeting the competing demand of resources for addressing the challenges of poverty eradication, food security and nutrition, universal access to education and health, gender equality and women empowerment, water and sanitation, energy, employment, sustainable urbanization and new human settlements and the means of implementation for the enhanced action for achieving among others, the sustainable development goals for its 1.2 billion people.
Indonesia	In line with the Paris Agreement, Indonesia respects, promotes and considers its obligations on human rights... as well as gender equality, empowerment of women. The preparation of the NDC has taken into account the post 2015 SDG particularly on taking urgent action to combat climate change... achieving gender equality. Indonesia has taken significant steps to reduce emissions in land use sector by instituting a moratorium on the clearing of primary forests...which include social forestry through active participation of the private sector, small and medium enterprises...and the most vulnerable groups, especially Adat communities (Indonesia: Masyarakat Hukum Adat, internationally known as Indigenous People), and women in both the planning and implementation stages.
Ireland	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Italy	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Jamaica	Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples in a gender-responsive manner. Besides climate action (SDG 13), Jamaica is making particularly substantial progress on health and well-being (SDG 3), quality education (SDG 4), and gender equality (SDG 5). It will be subject to all relevant laws, guidelines, policies and programs which are designed to increase inclusiveness and fairness, including the Code of Consultations and the National Policy for Gender Equity.
Jordan	The Strategy provides a road map to the health sector, as well as the many involved public agencies and organizations to work jointly to improve the health of the Jordanian population in particular the vulnerable groups (infants and children <5 years, the elderly >65 years, and pregnant women) in rural, desert, remote areas, and poverty pockets, and the environments in which they live, work, and play. The pre-2020 contribution of Jordan in this regard is obvious from Jordan's position portrayed om the Climate Change Policy of Jordan 2013-2020 and the actions and activities lead by Ministry of Social Development (MoSD); National Aid Fund, and MoSD's partners addressing vulnerability and impact of climate change on socioeconomic development particularly vulnerable groups (mainly the poor and women with emphasis on those living in rural areas) Though gender issues are still under-investigated in Jordan, the role of women in economy of rural areas is known to be substantial. Women in these areas are traditionally responsible for the household economy and are active in field work as well. Any negative impact of climate change will be most senses by women. Women make crucial contributions in agriculture and rural enterprises in drylands as farmers, animal husbandry, workers and entrepreneurs through their indigenous knowledge. Ensuring financial mechanisms on mitigation and adaptation address the needs and conditions for implementation of poor women and men equally. Building capacity at all levels to design and implement gender-responsive climate change policies, strategies and programs; Special attention will be put on linking the mitigation and adaptation measures specified in the INDC and beyond to SDGs from 1-5 which focus on addressing challenges of poverty, education, health, gender equality and other socioeconomic conditions;
Kenya	Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples in a gender-responsive manner. Kenya has various laws to promote gender equality and provide for the protection against discrimination on the basis of gender, with equal opportunities in education, work, and in cultural and professional development. Develop social safety net structures for women, youth and other vulnerable groups within the CCCFs; Strengthen access of women, youth, other vulnerable groups to enterprise funds, climate finance and credit lines Promote gender-responsive technologies and innovations in the private sector through financing, capacity building and start-up services; Consolidate successful technologies and develop a transfer strategy to women, youth and other vulnerable populations.
Kiribati	Summary of gender reference In its analysis of vulnerable sectors of society, it notes: The effects of climate change are felt first and most acutely by vulnerable and marginalized populations, including (inter alia) women. Violence against women and children is a widespread issue within Kiribati society, which can be exacerbated in times of disasters when normal social protection may be missing. All strategies and actions in the Kiribati Joint Implementation Plan on Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management are inclusive of vulnerable groups, considering gender, youth and children, the elderly and people with disability.
Latvia	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Lebanon	Lebanon considers the SDGs 5 (gender equality), 13 (climate action), 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) and 17 (partnerships for the goals) to be inherent in the successful achievement of the adaptation priorities and are therefore considered relevant to all actions. Moreover, Lebanon acknowledges that vulnerable groups, especially women, are disproportionately impacted by climatic events, and will therefore commit to render climate adaptation action gender responsive. Lebanon prioritizes a just transition through the consideration of the socioeconomic status of the most vulnerable, adopting a gender-responsive approach.
Lesotho	The rural electrification program will reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), promote rural development local entrepreneurship, reduce poverty, reduce rural exodus through job creation, strengthen social cohesion, improve education and health, improve access to new information and communication technologies and energy equipment and alleviation of women's domestic duties. Create a market for clean and efficient household cooking solutions to save lives, improve livelihoods, empower women, and protect the environment. To this effect the adaptation interventions proposed in this NDC are meant to a) recognize and respond to the differentiated needs, experiences, priorities and capacities of women and men; b) enhance gender balance and inclusiveness in various adaptation programs and projects. Promote gender mainstreaming in policies, programs and projects.
Liberia	Liberia has ensured that key relevant stakeholders (government agencies and ministries, civil society, local leaders, private sector, women groups, youth and student representatives, nongovernment organizations) were included and fully participated in its INDC preparation process. For the most part, women and children are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. However, their unique knowledge and perspectives also provide opportunities for inclusive, equitable and efficient adaptation responses and coping strategies. It provides a framework for enhancing gender equality in both climate adaptation and mitigation activities including decision-making processes, capacity building, implementation of policies and measures to ensure that climate change vulnerabilities are addressed with gender equity and youth development.
Lithuania	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Luxembourg	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Malawi	Women and girls are particularly impacted, as they have to walk further in search of basic commodities for the family such as firewood and water. Yet, women may not have the authority to decide an alternative and climate-resilient solutions for the household. The adaptation interventions proposed in this INDC are meant to enhance gender inclusiveness in the adaptation programs and projects. Promote gender mainstreaming in policies, programs and projects.
Mali	Summary of gender reference Women mentioned as vulnerable group (WVG) for the period of 2015-2020. Women mentioned in the adaptation context as stakeholders (S) in the management of national adaptation policy. Also mentioned, along with men, as beneficiaries of projects (B) related to rural population's human right to water. Also, gender mentioned as a target and beneficiaries of projects (B) in capacity building programs (adaptation context). along with actors from the private and public sector and the youth.
Malta	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Mauritius	Coordination of the INDC plans, programs and projects for both adaptation and mitigation actions will be under the responsibility of MOESDDBM and will involve the participation of all stakeholders *sectoral ministries, private sector, CBOs/NGOs, women's organizations, etc.
Mexico	The consequences of the adverse effects of this global phenomenon are even more serious for individuals and groups in vulnerable social, economic and environmental situations, including women, indigenous and Afro-Mexican communities, children, youth, migrants, people with disabilities, sexual minorities, low-income groups, and the elderly. Reports on the progress of the NDC's implementation will incorporate the objectives and goals of the Lima Work Program on Gender and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) Gender Action Plan. As a signatory of the Escazu Agreement, Mexico will abide by the objectives of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights under the principle of equal rights between women and men, as well as the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women. Actions undertaken to protect tangible cultural heritage from the effects of climate change will consider the respect for spiritual or religious beliefs, as well as for the roles of women and men. Recognizing the legacy of a structural system that has systematically placed vulnerable groups, especially women, at a disadvantage, this NDC update is based on gender-responsive approaches that will contribute to a more just and egalitarian society by prioritizing the needs of the vulnerable communities and promoting the inclusion and recognition of the knowledge of indigenous communities, under the principle of intergenerational equity. The Mexican Government ratifies its commitment to implement the NDC respecting human rights, integrating a gender equality approach, prioritizing the needs of the vulnerable groups, and promoting the inclusion and recognition of science and traditional knowledge of native indigenous communities under the principle of intergenerational equity.
Morocco	Revegetation of bare or eroded lands with 128,600 has of cacti in drylands to enhance smallholder farmers and women's cooperative income. Morocco's integrated approach to NDC will include respect for human rights and gender equality, as enshrined in Morocco's 2011 Constitution.
Mozambique	Population was estimated at 20.6 million , 48% are men and 52% are women.
Myanmar (Burma)	In addition, Myanmar recognizes a number of important emerging themes which are key to addressing both future emission reductions and adaptation to climate impacts, including the need for sustainable urban development; a more consistent inclusion of civil society perspectives; the empowerment of groups at risk of the short and long-term impacts of climate change, (such as children and other younger members of society); and the integration of gender considerations into climate change policy design. Ultimately, the effort to mitigate and adapt to climate change is seen as a contribution to alleviate suffering caused by climate change and enable sustainable and durable development of the poor, both in rural and urban areas.
Nauru	At the regional level, Nauru is also involved in a relatively low but increasing number of adaptation projects and programs and through the regional projects and programs, some actions are being implemented on the ground that addresses the needs in relation to coastal zone management, water, capacity building, gender, policy and planning.
Nepal	The Nepal Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan recognizes legitimate rights of all Nepali people including indigenous people and local communities, women, Dalits and other disadvantaged social groups over local biological resources.
Netherlands	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Nicaragua	Gender equity: Considering that women are protagonists in all economic sectors of the country, including the production and commercialization of agricultural and fishery products, activities that are receptive to the impacts of climate change and climate variability, adaptation and mitigation measures Faced with climate change, they will incorporate all the rights set forth in the different national legal instruments on gender equity. As part of the actions developed in the process of updating the NDC, communication with vulnerable sectors was strengthened, expanding the dialogue with indigenous people, groups of women and youth at the national level.
Niger	Niger's strategy is based on the vision of climate-smart agriculture an on access to modern energy services for everyone in 2030. Concerning the latter point, Niger has adopted the Regional White Book of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), which recognizes that access to modern energy services make a major contribution to improved access to basic social services (health, education, potable water); to uncreased productivity of households in cooking, lighting and transportation; to giving impetus to the creation of income-producing economic activities; to freeing women from chores such as gathering wood and water and shelling peas and beans to preserving the environment and improving the quality of life of rural populations; and to promoting local jobs and stabilizing populations to contain rural exodus and check uncontrolled urbanization. The co-benefits in the energy sector relate to improvement in the people's living conditions as a result of increased income through social welfare, access to potable water, education and health, as well as access to new information and communication technologies (NICT) and energy equipment, development of local entrepreneurship, alleviation of women's domestic duties and reduction of the rural exodus through job creation.
Nigeria	Reinforcing social safety nets through support systems that reduce vulnerability and improve livelihood conditions for the vulnerable, especially women and children. Those who rely on fuel wood and charcoal for cooking and heating, primarily women, are exposed to serious indoor air pollution. Providing affordable clean alternatives is the only way forward. Women and youth, but also remote communities, still have less economic, political and legal clout than, for example, men and the urban middle class. Women benefit most from clean efficient cook stoves, gaining in health and in productive time where these are introduced. Similarly, agricultural extension services have proven to reach more men than women. The measures included in the Nigeria INDC were deemed to at a minimum be gender neutral and / or to enhance social inclusion. This puts a significant brake on development and the empowerment of women in particular. a further aim of the 2021 NDC update is to mainstream gender across all sectors. To this end, the Federal Executive Council in 2020 approved the National Action Plan on Gender and Climate
North Macedonia	Finally the process of the enhanced NDC determination involved 25 women to conduct analytical and technical work and 403 women to provide data and discuss and validate the assumptions and results Based on the types of the newly created jobs, very basic analysis indicated that at least 27% of the jobs in 2035 can be assigned to women. Engage United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) and Gender Focal Points, Gender Machinery and Parliamentarian Commission on Equal Opportunities to promote leadership roles for women in climate action; The NAP will incorporate cross-sectorial and sector-specific adaptation actions and measures, along with identified adaptation investment priorities based on the review of national and sectorial development policies and plans, and the outcomes of an extensive consultation process, including stakeholders from all sectors and levels of governance, climate-related institutions and agencies, along with the private sector, civil society, academia and women associations and youth NGOs representatives. Introduction of the gender-indicators in some of the policies and measures (PAM) with an aim to make them more gender-responsive.
Norway	In 2018, a new and comprehensive Equality and Anti-Discrimination Act entered into force. The Act's purpose is to promote gender equality. The act provides protection against discrimination on the basis pf gender, pregnancy, leave in connection with birth or adoption and care responsibilities. Women and men are to be given equal opportunities in education and work, and in their cultural and professional development.
Panama	Summary of gender reference Women mentioned in the context of stakeholders or decision makers (S) (DM) in the public participation process. This was carried out based on the criteria defined by Article No. 25 of Law 6 of 2002 laying down the procedures for public participation, where the mechanism of public hearing for the participation of various sectors was used, highlighting gender equality, the presence of minority groups, young and old, literate and illiterate.
Papua New Guinea	Vision 2050 is underpinned by seven Strategic Focus Areas: 1. Human Capital Development, Gender, Youth and People Empowerment; 2. Wealth Creation; 3. Institutional Development and Service Delivery; 4. Security and International Relations; 5. Environmental Sustainability and Climate Change; 6. Spiritual, Cultural and Community Development; and 7. Strategic Planning, Integration and Control
Paraguay	Summary of gender reference Women mentioned as stakeholders (S) in a summary of the National Development Plan with attention to indigenous peoples, strong role of women; young visionaries and trained with leading the country.
Peru	Summary of gender reference The NDC states under ‘Crosscutting Approaches’: Mitigation and adaptation national policies and instruments incorporate a gender perspective to promote and ensure active, continuous, full and equal participation of women and men in the consultation and decision-making processes for the control and access to natural resources, management of GHG emissions and generation of mitigation and adaptation strategies. This is currently based on the implementation of the National Plan for Gender Equality 2012-2017 (PLANIG in Spanish) and the future Peruvian Action Plan on Gender and Climate Change (PAGCC-Peru in Spanish) which is framed in the National Strategy on Climate Change (Estrategia Nacional ante el Cambio Climático or ENCC in Spanish). Women mentioned in the adaptation context as vulnerable groups focusing on people and their livelihoods – the vulnerable populations that need to be addressed on a priority basis has been determined. These are: rural populations related to subsistence family farming and/or weak market linkages, many of them grouped in peasant and indigenous communities; small farmers; artisanal fishermen; native communities; small forest producers; and, from a health perspective, infants, women and seniors. In relation to adaptation, ‘gender and intercultural approach’ is stated as a cross-cutting goal. This involves the formulation and approval of an Action Plan on Gender and Climate Change.
Philippines	Recognizing the critical and complex challenges posed by climate change, the Philippines continuously pursues institutional reforms factoring sustainable and responsible use of natural resources, respect for, protection, promotion, and fulfillment, as well as, the full enjoyment of human rights by all, including the indigenous peoples and local communities, gender equality and the full and equal participation of women, intergenerational equity, biodiversity conservation, food and water security.
Poland	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Portugal	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Republic of Moldova	In support to climate action, the adaptation component incorporates cross-sectorial and sector-specific adaptation actions and measures to be implemented, along with identified adaptation investment priorities based on the view of national and sectorial development policies and plans, and the outcomes of an extensive consultation process, including stakeholders from all sectors and levels of governance, in particular, Central Public Authorities and Local Public Authorities, climate-related institutions and agencies, along with private sector, society, academia and women associations and youth NGOs representatives. the national legal framework on equality between women and men is in line with international gender standards. The National Climate Change Commission (NCCC) is seen as a permanent formalized body with the highest representation of key stakeholders:...taking into consideration gender dimension through including representatives of women's associations and considering gender equality and social inclusion in all supervising activities of NCCC. The National Strategy on Ensuring Equality between women and men (2017-2021) in the Republic of Moldova and the Action Plan for its implementation aims at greater reduction of gender gaps due to social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities exacerbated by climate change. The gender policy is supported by the Law No. 5 XVI of 09.02.2006 on ensuring equal opportunities between women and men, which stipulates that in the Republic of Moldova, women and men enjoy equal rights and freedoms and are guaranteed equal opportunities for their exercise Develop and implement focused trainings, other types of education on Common Country Analysis (CCA) targeting women, youth, other vulnerable groups. Improved and expanded Ministry of Agriculture, Regional Development and Environment (MARDE) climate-related capacities, including inclusiveness and gender equality approach Promotion of gender equality on the CCA approach...
Romania	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Rwanda	In this context, the Government of Rwanda plans to promote and encourage the mainstreaming of gender considerations in climate change issues.
Saint Lucia	The Climate Change adaptation Policy has identifies that its success will in part depend on the extent of stakeholder (including women and vulnerable groups) ownership and participation in the implementation of the Climate Change Adaptation Policy (CCAP) priorities. To foster equality on adaptation benefits, Saint Lucia's NAP and associated Sectoral Adaptation Strategy and Action Plans (SASAP) focus on vulnerable groups. While they include activities focusing on women and men generally based on a number of vulnerability factors, they don not identify activities that are specific to either women or men, owing to the lack of data on differential needs. In line with Saint Lucia's commitment to SDG %: Gender Equality, Saint Lucia continues the process of mainstreaming gender in national strategic planning and programming across government and specifically within climate change considerations, including Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions and National Adaptation Plan initiatives. Saint Lucia's Gender Relations Department is developing the national gender equality policy and strategic plan, which includes environmental sustainability with focus on climate change as a thematic priority. The EnGenDER (Enabling Gender-responsive Disaster Recovery, Climate and Environmental Resilience in the Caribbean will be the starting point for a more substantive gender integration in climate change and should act as a catalyst for the acceleration of gender equality initiatives in Saint Lucia.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Summary of gender reference Among the main activities being implemented at a national level to facilitate adaptation include the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience includes the following strategy: Design and implement gender-sensitive disaster risk management initiatives.
Senegal	Summary of gender reference Women mentioned in the context of mitigation signaling particular importance to using modern forms of energy production in homes so as to reduce the workload of women and help in improving the academic performance of children (B).
Seychelles	The National Climate Change Strategy 2009 addresses specifically, and although some progress has been made, it was highlighted at the stakeholder workshop that improved gender-sensitive capacity building, research and education was needed to underpin all climate change adaptation efforts to make them effective and resilient. This vision is nested in the country's broader aspiration of sustainable development: finding strategies to realize the nation's economic, social and cultural potential through an innovative, knowledge-led and gender-sensitive approach. Seychelles' aims to build gender-sensitive capacity and social empowerment at all levels to adequately respond to climate change. The process of implementing the Vision to build gender-sensitive capacity, education and awareness, research and monitoring across critical sectors will be nationally monitored, reviewed , updated, and reported by the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change and will be focused on short-term monitoring of activities and process, and outputs rather than on longer-term outcomes.
Sierra Leone	Pillar eight (8) of Sierra Leone's five year development plan considers Gender and Women's Empowerment. Therefore, in addressing climate change issues, public entities are required to undertake public awareness and consultations, and ensure gender mainstreaming.
Slovakia	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Slovenia	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Solomon Islands	On the achievement of Millennium Development Goals (MDG) a range of social indicators show that the country is likely to meet Goal 2 (Achieve universal primary education) and Goal 5 (Improve maternal health). Females still have less access than males to secondary and tertiary education while women have poor access to health and family planning services in the rural areas. According to the Asia Development Bank (ADB) (2010) much of the improvement in the Human Development Index (HDI) was the result of significant overseas financial and technical assistance, with aid levels increasing from 22% of GDP in 1990 to 66% of GDP in 2005.
Somalia	The primary target of this program is pastoralists and farming communities with limited access to assets and resources, including an emphasis on women and youth among these communities.
South Africa 1	This plan is informed by an assessment of sectoral, cross-sectoral and geographical vulnerabilities to the adverse impacts of climate change, and it will quantify and present pathways for adaptation, toward an inclusive and just transition to a climate-resilient economy and society, taking into account local and indigenous knowledge, gender considerations as well as social, economic and environmental implications.
South Sudan	Adapting Vulnerable Communities to Climate Change. This also has to take into account gender equality and human rights. Furthermore, it is fundamental to incorporate a gender and human rights approach into capacity building, prioritizing the most vulnerable groups to reduce social inequality. Ensure capacity building and participation of the society, local communities, indigenous peoples, women, men, youth, civil organizations and private sector in national and subnational climate change planning.
Spain	"As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Sri Lanka	Sri Lanka will also take steps to ensure internal equity by maintaining inclusivity. Inclusivity will be focused through the participation of groups such as gender, youth, vulnerable communities, and providing opportunities to these groups to engage, benefit from the ambitious targets.
Sudan	Empowerment of women facing increased occurrence of severe droughts and degradation of natural resources, scarcity in water and loss of livelihood sources: Women empowerment and promotion of gender mainstreaming approach in all interventions Women saving groups, women income and food opportunities (household garden), diversified livelihood sources.
Sweden	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
Switzerland	Switzerland fully subscribes to the view that Parties should, when taking into action to address climate change, respect, promote, and consider their respective human rights obligations, including due consideration for gender equality and gender-sensitive policies.
Tajikistan	The introduction of climate change adaptation measures will be carried out by means of active role of women and civil society on the issues of climate change and disaster risk reduction.
Togo	Togo's population... adult literacy rate (with a clear disparity between sexes: 74.0% for men and 47.9% for women
Tonga	In relation to Tonga’s national response to climate change, it notes that Tonga’s Strategic Development Framework 2015-25 has seven national outcomes, including: A more inclusive, sustainable and empowering human development with gender equality. In an Annex to the NDC, it also notes legislation and policies that are ‘aligned with a Resilient Tonga’. This includes: The Family Protection Act, the National Policy on Gender and Development and the Strategic Plan, all in the focal area of Women.
Uganda	Women are especially vulnerable in terms of food insecurity, water shortage and fuel wood scarcity. Contributions under this INDC include cross-cutting respect for human rights and gender-responsive climate change actions. The protection of vulnerable groups, including women, is a cross-cutting priority. Promote and encourage the mainstreaming of gender considerations in climate change issues. Mainstreaming gender into development policies, plans and strategies as well as observance of human rights in all climate change adaptation and mitigation actions.
United Kingdom	As the Council of the European Union has highlighted, nature-based solutions play an important role to solve global challenges such as biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation, poverty, hunger health, water scarcity and right, gender inequality, disaster risk reduction and climate change. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive manner. The EU NDC is prepared in the context of the EU's commitment to gender equality and cross-cutting priorities as articulated in commitments such as the European Pact on gender Equality... and the integrating dimensions of human rights and gender equality by member states into their national plans, strategies under the EU Energy Union Governance Regulation.
United States of America	Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples in a gender-responsive manner.
Uruguay	To make available, by 2025, georeferenced information of social vulnerabilities associated to adverse climatic events, adopting human rights and gender perspectives and looking at childhood, population below the poverty line and/or indigence, homeless people, older adults, disabled people, afro-descendants, migrants and rural population.
Uzbekistan	Widening the participation of the public, scientific institutions, women and local communities in planning and management, taking into account approaches and methods of gender equity.
Vanuatu	Climate change may affect all areas of life for Ni-Vanuatu people and impact women, men and young people in different ways.
Vietnam	Adaptation: Climate change, increased natural disasters and climate extremes produce different impacts on women and men. While men are exposed to more risks due to their involvement in search and rescue operations, women are generally more vulnerable to health and socioeconomic problems; Climate-induced risks: The poor, ethnic minority groups, people whose livelihoods depend on the climate, the elderly, women, children, and people with chronic illnesses have the highest level of vulnerability. Women, especially ethnic minority women, are highly vulnerable due to limited access to education and fewer opportunities to participate in non-farm employment; Public health: Increased temperatures, hot and prolonged heat waves, air pollution, as well as other climate extremes negatively affect human health, leading to increased vulnerability especially among the elderly, women, children and people with existing conditions; Loss and damage: Since the end of 2014, increased temperatures due to the impact of El Niño have caused drought and saline intrusion, seriously damaging production activities and people’s lives, including those of women.
Zambia	Gender equality: In 2008, the Government Republic of Zambia with support from cooperating partners developed and launched a Climate Change Gender Action Plan (CCGAP) which ensures that Zambia's climate change processes mainstream gender considerations to guarantee that women and men can have access to, participate in, and benefit equally from climate change initiatives. Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with local communities and indigenous peoples in a gender-responsive manner.
Zimbabwe	Mainstreaming gender-responsive climate policies and emphasize special efforts to support vulnerable groups (women, youth and children) in climate change adaptation efforts within all sectors of the economy.

Notes

^[1] Jacob Greber, “World to Hit Temperature Tipping Point 10 Years Faster than Forecast,” Australian Financial Review, 6 August 2021, https://www.afr.com/.

^[2] UN Secretary-General, “Secretary-General Calls Latest IPCC Climate Report ‘Code Red for Humanity’, Stressing ‘Irrefutable’ Evidence of Human Influence” (press release, United Nations, 9 August 2021), https://www.un.org/.

^[3] This paper uses legislative/legislature and parliament interchangeably, referring in either case to a state’s national lawmaking body.

^[4] “Monthly Ranking of Women in National Parliaments” (IPU Parline, 2020), https://data.ipu.org/.

^[5] Hani Zainulbhai, “Women, More than Men, Say Climate Change Will Harm Them Personally,” Pew Research, December 2015, https://www.pewresearch.org/; and “Gender and Environmental Statistics: Exploring Available Data and Developing New Evidence” (OECD, March 2020), https://www.oecd.org/.

^[6] Joshua S. Goldstein, “A Conflict-Cooperation Scale for WEIS Events Data,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 36 (1992): 369–85, https://doi.org/ and “Gender Climate Tracker,” Text (WEDO, October 27, 2016), https://www.genderclimatetracker.org/gender-ndc/introduction; Mary Caprioli, “Gendered Conflict,” Journal of Peace Research 37, no. 1 (1 January 2000): 51–68, https://doi.org/.

^[7] Julia Smith et al., “More than a Public Health Crisis: A Feminist Political Economic Analysis of COVID-19,” Global Public Health 16, no. 8–9 (2 September 2021): 1367, https://doi.org/.

^[8] Karen Celis, “Substantive Representation of Women (and Improving It). What Is and Should It Be About?,” Comparative European Politics 7 (2009): 95–113; and Susan Franceschet and Jennifer M. Piscopo, “Gender Quotas and Women’s Substantive Representation: Lessons from Argentina,” Politics & Gender 4, no. 3 (September 2008): 393–425, https://doi.org/.

^[9] Orlando C. Richard and Carliss D. Miller, “Considering Diversity as a Source of Competitive Advantage in Organizations,” Oxford Handbook of Diversity and Work, 9 January 2013, https://doi.org/.

^[10] Leslie A. Schwindt-Bayer, “Still Supermadres? Gender and the Policy Priorities of Latin American Legislators,” American Journal of Political Science 50, no. 3 (2006): 570–85, https://doi.org/; Mark P. Jones, “Legislator Gender and Legislator Policy Priorities in the Argentine Chamber of Deputies and the United States House of Representatives,” Policy Studies Journal 25, no. 4 (1997): 613–29, https://doi.org/; Susan J. Carroll, The Impact of Women in Public Office (Indiana University Press, 2001); Kathleen A. Bratton and Leonard P. Ray, “Descriptive Representation, Policy Outcomes, and Municipal Day-Care Coverage in Norway,” American Journal of Political Science 46, no. 2 (2002): 428–37, https://doi.org/; Kathleen A. Bratton, “Critical Mass Theory Revisited: The Behavior and Success of Token Women in State Legislatures,” Politics & Gender 1, no. 1 (March 2005): 97–125, https://doi.org/; Cindy Simon Rosenthal, Women Transforming Congress (University of Oklahoma Press, 2002); Michelle M. Taylor-Robinson and Roseanna Michelle Heath, “Do Women Legislators Have Different Policy Priorities than Their Male Colleagues?,” Women & Politics 24, no. 4 (1 January 2003): 77–101, https://doi.org/; and Michele L. Swers, “Connecting Descriptive and Substantive Representation: An Analysis of Sex Differences in Cosponsorship Activity,” Legislative Studies Quarterly 30, no. 3 (2005): 407–33, https://doi.org/.

^[11] Kari Norgaard and Richard York, “Gender Equality and State Environmentalism,” Gender and Society 19, no. 4 (2005): 506–22.

^[12] Astghik Mavisakalyan and Yashar Tarverdi, “Gender and Climate Change: Do Female Parliamentarians Make Difference?,” European Journal of Political Economy 56 (1 January 2019): 151–64, https://doi.org/.

^[13] Christina Ergas and Richard York, “Women’s Status and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: A Quantitative Cross-National Analysis,” Social Science Research 41, no. 4 (1 July 2012): 965–76, https://doi.org/.

^[14] Franceschet and Piscopo, “Gender Quotas and Women’s Substantive Representation.”

^[15] “S/PV.5663” (United Nations Security Council, 17 April 2007), https://undocs.org/; and UN Security Council, “63/281. Climate Change and Its Possible Security Implications,” A/RES/63/281 § (2009), https://undocs.org/.

^[16] World Bank Group, “World Development Report 2011: Conflict, Security, and Development,” Understanding Poverty, 2011, xvi, 74, https://documents.worldbank.org/.

^[17] The Center for Climate and Security, “Is Climate Change a Security Risk?,” Climate Security 101, 16 February 2015, https://climatesecurity101.org/.

^[18] Chantel de Jonge Oudraat and Michael E. Brown, “Gender, Climate Change, and Security: Making the Connections,” Wilson Center (blog), 25 January 2022, https://diplomacy21-adelphi.wilsoncenter.org/.

^[19] Tobias Ide et al., “Gender in the Climate-Conflict Nexus: ‘Forgotten’ Variables, Alternative Securities, and Hidden Power Dimensions,” Politics and Governance 9, no. 4 (22 October 2021): 44; and Eran Bendavid et al., “The Effects of Armed Conflict on the Health of Women and Children,” The Lancet 397, no. 10273 (6 February 2021): 522–32, https://doi.org/.

^[20] Scott Greenwood, “Water Insecurity, Climate Change and Governance in the Arab World,” Middle East Policy 21, no. 2 (June 2014): 140–56, https://doi.org/; and Jody M. Prescott, Armed Conflict, Women and Climate Change (London: Routledge, 2018), https://doi.org/.

^[21] Tobias Ide et al., “Multi-Method Evidence for When and How Climate-Related Disasters Contribute to Armed Conflict Risk,” Global Environmental Change 62 (1 May 2020): 102063, https://doi.org/.

^[22] Neta C. Crawford, Pentagon Fuel Use, Climate Change, and the Costs of War (Boston: Boston University, 13 November 2019), https://watson.brown.edu/.

^[23] US Department of Defense, “Combating Climate Change Factors Into Defense Budget Request,” 2 June 2021, https://www.defense.gov/.

^[24] Crawford, “Pentagon Fuel Use, Climate Change, and the Costs of War.”

^[25] Mayra Buvinic et al., Violent Conflict and Gender Inequality: An Overview, Policy Research Working Papers (The World Bank, 2013), https://doi.org/; and C J L Murray et al., “Armed Conflict as a Public Health Problem,” BMJ 324, no. 7333 (9 February 2002): 346–49, https://doi.org/.

^[26] Anna Applebaum and Briana Mawby, “Gang Violence as Armed Conflict:” (Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, November 2018), https://giwps.georgetown.edu/; and Cassandra Clifford, “Rape as a Weapon of War and It’s Long-Term Effects on Victims and Society” (7th Global Conference: Violence and the Contexts of Hostility, Budapest, Hungary, 5 May 2008), 7, https://www.peacewomen.org/.

^[27] Erika Forsberg and Louise Olsson, “Examining Gender Inequality and Armed Conflict at the Subnational Level,” Journal of Global Security Studies 6, no. 2 (17 June 2021), https://doi.org/.

^[28] Valerie M. Hudson et al., “The Heart of the Matter: The Security of Women and the Security of States,” International Security 33, no. 3 (January 2009): 7–45, https://doi.org/.

^[29] Jennifer Philippa Eggert, “Female Fighters and Militants During the Lebanese Civil War: Individual Profiles, Pathways, and Motivations,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 46, no. 7 (November 5, 2018): 1042–71, https://doi.org/.

^[30] Carol Cohn, “The Women, Peace and Security Agenda and the Climate Crisis: Inextricable Links” (presentation, Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, Sweden, 9 March 2020), https://genderandsecurity.org/; and Carol Cohn and Claire Duncanson, “Women, Peace and Security in a Changing Climate,” International Feminist Journal of Politics 22, no. 5 (19 October 2020): 742–62, https://doi.org/.

^[31] First, climate change will impact the effectiveness of peacebuilding: peacebuilding requires jobs and livelihoods while climate change destroys the conditions for providing jobs and livelihoods; peacebuilding requires addressing reforms for land rights and restitution, while climate change reduces the quantity and quality of land available; peacebuilding requires addressing the health crises and injury caused by war, while climate change adds pressure on health services. Second, every decision within the context of peacebuilding will have impacts on climate change; specifically, standard economic strictures placed on post-recovery systems tend to worsen rather than ameliorate climate change by relying on extractive economic development. Carol Cohn and Claire Duncanson, “How the Women, Peace and Security Agenda Must Change in Response to the Climate Crisis,” International Feminist Journal of Politics (blog), 3 December 2020, https://www.ifjpglobal.org/.

^[32] Maryruth Belsey Priebe, “Gender All the Way Down: Proposing a Feminist Framework for Analyzing Gendered Climate Security Risks” (master’s thesis, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University, 2022), https://dash.harvard.edu/.

^[33] Ide et al., “Gender in the Climate-Conflict Nexus,” 44.

^[34] António Guterres, “Deputy Secretary-General’s Remarks to International Conference on Sustainable Development—‘Breaking Down Silos: Fostering Collaborative Action on the SDGs’ [as Prepared for Delivery]” (presentation, Sixth International Conference on Sustainable Development, New York, 27 September 2018), https://www.un.org/.

^[35] GPE (Global Partnership for Education) and UNGEI (United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative), “Guidance for Developing Gender-Responsive Education Sector Plans. Washington D.C.” (The Global Partnership for Education, 2017), https://www.globalpartnership.org/.

^[36] Tom Mitchell and Simon Maxwell, “Policy Brief: Defining Climate Compatible Development” (Climate & Development Knowledge Network, November 2010), https://cdkn.org/.

^[37] Elizabeth Seymour Smith, “Climate Change in Women, Peace and Security National Action Plans,” SIPRI Insights on Peace and Security 2020, no. 7 (June 2020): 32; and “Gender Climate Tracker.”

^[38] It is important to note here that 27 countries included in the “Has an NDC” category are part of the European Union (EU). Rather than having 27 individual NDCs, all 27 EU member states share a joint NDC. Furthermore, 10 of the 27 EU member states (37 percent of all EU member states) have both individual climate-compatible NAPs as well as a shared gender-responsive NDC. Efforts have been taken in future steps of the study to control for this potentially confounding variable.

^[39] These findings approximately corroborate previous research conducted by Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO): https://genderclimatetracker.org/.

^[40] “Monthly Ranking of Women in National Parliaments,” IPU Parline, 1 June 2021, https://data.ipu.org/. The IPU ranking system is compiled by the IPU based on data provided by national parliaments. It ranks countries according to the average number of seats occupied by women in their respective parliaments. This ranking considers the percentage of women in both lower or single houses and upper chambers. A lower numerical score indicates a higher rank, reflecting a greater representation of women in parliament. However, it is essential to note that a high ranking does not guarantee meaningful roles for women in government.

^[41] Maryruth Belsey Priebe, “Compound Gender-Climate-Security Threats and Vulnerabilities within the Indo-Pacific,” Pacific Forum, Issues & Insights, 22, no. WP2 (January 2022): iv, 9.

^[42] In-depth analysis of the quality of references to gender in NDCs (including examination of commitments to mitigation, capacity-building, budgeting, planning, and monitoring) has been conducted by groups such as WEDO (WEDO Gender Climate Tracker, 2018).

^[43] Refer to table 3 in the appendix for comprehensive textual details.

^[44] A climate-compatible security policy is one that minimizes the harm caused by climate change, especially for fragile states, while maximizing the many opportunities to increase national and human security offered by a low emissions, more resilient, future.

^[45] A gender-responsive policy is one that, “fulfills two basic criteria: a) gender norms, roles, and relations are considered and b) measures are taken to actively reduce the harmful effects of gender norms, roles, and relations—including gender inequality” (GPE (Global Partnership for Education) and UNGEI (United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative), 2017).

^[46] Sarah Childs and Mona Lena Krook, “Analyzing Women’s Substantive Representation: From Critical Mass to Critical Actors,” Government and Opposition 44 (March 2009): 125–45, https://doi.org/.

^[47] Justin Esarey and Gina Chirillo, “‘Fairer Sex’ or Purity Myth? Corruption, Gender, and Institutional Context,” Politics & Gender 9, no. 4 (December 2013): 362, https://doi.org/; and Daniel Stockemer, “Women’s Parliamentary Representation in Africa: The Impact of Democracy and Corruption on the Number of Female Deputies in National Parliaments,” Political Studies 59, no. 3 (19 July 2011), 697, https://doi.org/.

^[48] A perspective that calls for challenging gendered power structures and reconceptualizing dominant understandings of security by questioning the idea that security is a universally enjoyed phenomenon, and by asking gender-sensitive questions about who is secure and who is a threat.

^[49] Cali Nathanson and Amy Myers Jaffe, “Women and Gender in Climate Diplomacy,” Center on Global Energy Policy, 5 October 2022. https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/.

^[50] Edwin Ng and Carles Muntaner, “The Effect of Women in Government on Population Health: An Ecological Analysis among Canadian Provinces, 1976–2009,” SSM - Population Health 6 (16 August 2018): 141–48, https://doi.org/.

^[51] NDCs from the following countries are not in English; in some cases, unofficial translated versions have been included: Argentina, Cameroon*, Comoros*, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo*, Ecuador, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guatemala*, Haiti*, Honduras*, Mali*, Mauritiana, Nicaragua, Oman, Panama*, Paraguay*, Senegal*. Those whose text in is highlighted in yellow were sourced from: “Country Profiles,” WEDO Gender Climate Tracker, 9 July 2018, https://www.genderclimatetracker.org/. All other texts were sourced from original NAPs.

[EG1]Colors removed for ADA compliance for accessibility.

Notes

Disclaimer